Religion: Role and Relevance - In the Modern World

Abstract

This study examines the multifaceted role and enduring relevance of religion across historical, social, and intellectual contexts, with particular attention to its ethical, psychological, and civilizational dimensions. The study emphasizes religion’s function as a ‘social glue’ that integrates individuals into moral communities, shapes legal and ethical frameworks, and fosters cultural and intellectual development. The study also considers the challenges posed by modernity, wherein theology was marginalized by positivism, secular rationalism, and materialist ideologies, and postmodernity, which introduced relativism and skepticism toward universal truths. Amid these epistemological shifts, religion remains indispensable for addressing existential questions of purpose, truth, and ultimate destiny. Islam, in particular, exemplifies a model akin to critical realism, affirming objective truth while acknowledging human limitations, providing ethical guidance through divine revelation, and integrating personal and communal life. Its teachings harmonize spiritual devotion with rational inquiry, fostering both inner flourishing and social responsibility. Furthermore, in a globalized and pluralistic world, Islam balances exclusivity in the affirmation of Tawḥid with openness to interfaith engagement, addressing both individual and collective needs. The study concludes that religion continues to provide a comprehensive framework for human life, bridging temporal and eternal concerns, guiding moral decision-making, sustaining psychological well-being, and supporting social order, thereby demonstrating its ongoing relevance even in the post and metamodern eras.

Religion: From Pre-Renaissance to Meta Modern Era

Religion has always been central to human existence. For some, religion is devotion to the divine; for others, it is a way of life, a moral compass, or a communal identity. Cicero defined religio as ‘relegere’—to go over again with care—indicating a scrupulous devotion to higher powers beyond the self. ¹ Augustine, developing the idea further, described religion as that which binds the human soul to God (religare), affirming that humanity’s ultimate rest lies only in the divine. ² In modern sociology, Emile Durkheim viewed religion as ‘a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things,’ a social force that generates solidarity and collective conscience.

Yet in the modern and postmodern worlds, the place of religion has been fiercely contested. Secularization theories once predicted the steady decline of religious belief, imagining that science and rationalism would make faith obsolete. Instead, we find that religion not only endures but, in some ways, grows stronger, adapting to globalization and new cultural landscapes. ³ Moreover, Miroslav Volf argues that world religions are not merely reacting to globalization but remain essential drivers of identity, moral vision, and human flourishing, making them indispensable even in an age shaped by pluralism and competing secular outlooks. ⁴

The contemporary climate, which has shifted from postmodern to metamodern, is characterized as a discourse which is oscillating between a modern enthusiasm and a postmodern irony. ⁵ In simple terms, meta-modernism is marked by deep suspicion toward grand narratives, embraces relativism, and yet, paradoxically, expresses a longing for meaning, transcendence, and rootedness. Even within this metamodern complexity, David Ray Griffin’s analysis remains relevant: postmodern theology arises precisely out of dissatisfaction with both rigid modern rationalism and shallow relativism, calling instead for a constructive engagement with religion that neither denies the use of science nor dismisses faith. ⁶ Similarly, Paul Hiebert points to epistemological shifts that challenge both positivist arrogance and postmodern nihilism, offering critical realism as a way forward: affirming truth while remaining sensitive to cultural context and human limitations. ⁷ Thus, religion continues to play an indispensable role, as it provides dimensions of meaning and transcendence without which a worldview remains incomplete.

The Collective Role of Religion

Religion, far from being a purely private matter of faith, has historically served as one of the most decisive forces in shaping collective human life. It functions as the central thread that integrates individuals into moral communities, establishes social order, and provides the ethical framework upon which civilizations are built. The Holy Quran and the Bible both affirm this collective dimension by declaring humanity as one family under God—an idea that provided the moral grounding for brotherhood, equality, and justice in both Islamic and Christian civilizations. In this way, the themes of religion as social glue, as the foundation of human civilization, as a catalyst of civilizational progress, and as a driver of globalization represent interwoven dimensions of one enduring truth: religion has always been central to the making and sustaining of human life in both its communal and civilizational forms.

Religion as Social Glue

From the earliest human societies, religion has functioned as the binding force that holds communities together. Emile Durkheim, one of the foundational figures of sociology, argued that religion functions primarily as the ‘social glue’ that holds communities together. In ‘The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life’, he described religion as ‘a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things,’ through which individuals are bound into a moral community. ⁸ Rituals and symbols, in this sense, are not mere superstitions but collective practices that reinforce social cohesion and solidarity. By transforming private emotions into shared expressions, religion generates a sense of unity and belonging that protects societies from falling into isolation or anomie. ⁹

More recently, Miroslav Volf has emphasized that religions continue to offer communities ‘visions of flourishing’ in an age of globalization, providing moral resources for solidarity across cultural and national boundaries. ¹⁰ In this way, religion sustains not only ancient societies but also modern and globalized ones, serving as an enduring foundation of human community. In other words, religion is not merely belief in divine beings but a ‘social glue’ that binds people into communities of meaning.

Practical examples can be seen in the two largest religions of the world, namely: Christianity and Islam. In Christianity, the teaching that all human beings are created in the image of God ¹¹ and that God ‘made from one man every nation of mankind’ ¹² lays the foundation for human equality and shared dignity. This was practically expressed in the early Church, where Jews and Gentiles, rich and poor, were brought together as ‘one in Christ Jesus’. ¹³ It was also exemplified in shared communal meals and care for widows and orphans. ¹⁴

Similarly, Islam, by affirming that all people are descendants of Adam and Eve ¹⁵ and that ‘the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you’, ¹⁶ translated unity into practice through institutions such as the equal rows of believers in daily congregational prayer and the universal brotherhood embodied in Hajj, where distinctions of race and status dissolve. The Holy Quran states:

إِنَّمَا الْمُؤْمِنُونَ إِخْوَةٌ فَأَصْلِحُوا بَيْنَ أَخَوَيْكُمْ وَاتَّقُوا اللَّهَ لَعَلَّكُمْ تُرْحَمُونَ 10

The believers are but one brotherhood, so make peace between your brothers. And be God-conscious so you may be shown mercy.

This verse emphasizes that faith creates a bond surpassing tribal or ethnic divisions. Prophet Muhammad reinforced this vision and declared:

ترى المؤمنين في تراحمهم وتوادهم وتعاطفهم كمثل الجسد إذا اشتكى عضوا تداعى له سائر جسده بالسهر والحمى. ¹⁸

You see the believers, in their mutual mercy, love, and compassion, as being like a single body: when one limb suffers, the whole body responds with sleeplessness and fever.

Classical Muslim thinkers further elaborated this principle and stated:

واعلموا أن الملك والدين أخوان توأمان، لا قوام لأحدهما إلا بصاحبه؛ لأن الدين أس الملك وعماده، وصار الملك بعد حارس الدين، فلا بد للملك من أسه، ولا بد للدين من حارسه؛ فإن ‌ما ‌لا ‌حارس ‌له ‌ضائع، وإن ما لا أس له مهدوم. ¹⁹

And know that authority and religion are twin brothers; neither of them can stand without the other. Religion is the foundation and support of authority, and authority in turn is the guardian of religion. A king must have a foundation, and religion must have a guardian. For whatever has no guardian is lost, and whatever has no foundation is demolished.

The assertion that ‘kingship and religion are twin brothers; neither can stand without the other, for religion is the foundation and kingship its guardian’ reflects a profound recognition of their mutual interdependence. Religion supplies the ethical foundation and shared values that legitimize political authority, while governance protects and sustains religion within the public sphere. Without such moral grounding, political power risks descending into tyranny, and without institutional protection, religion risks fragmentation or marginalization. This reciprocal relationship operates as a form of societal glue, i.e., religion offers a unifying vision of justice and purpose, while political authority ensures its embodiment in social order and law. In Durkheimian terms, religion transforms private beliefs into collective expressions, generating social cohesion and solidarity that prevent societies from dissolving into isolation or anomie. Thus, the partnership of religion and political authority binds individuals into a shared moral community, securing both spiritual and worldly stability.

In this framework, religion is not an isolated spiritual pursuit but the cohesive force that integrates individuals into the Ummah—a moral community united under God’s guidance. In the Islamic tradition, religion is likewise conceived as the binding force of society, shaping both its moral fabric and communal solidarity.

Religion as the Foundation of Human Civilization

Human beings, though naturally social, are also driven by selfish desires, competition, and greed, which, left unchecked, lead to conflict, rivalry, and ruin. Ancient thinkers like Augustine described man as both social by nature and anti-social by corruption, and Muslim scholars likewise affirmed that without restraint, life would be ‘nasty, brutish, and short.’ Yet, unlike Hobbes who believed humans could construct morality through reason, Islam maintained that no human has the authority to impose obligations upon another—true law and morality must come from God alone. Revelation, therefore, was indispensable: it supplied the wisdom humans lacked, the authority they would not submit to in one another, and the sanctions strong enough—Paradise and Hell—to curb their destructive impulses. Prophets ﷨ were not only founders of polities but also culture-bearers, teaching humanity agriculture, medicine, and civilization itself. Without divine law, people might fashion rules of convenience, but they would lack true morality and salvation. Furthermore, no human act is intrinsically good or bad, it is God’s command that makes it so. Religion, therefore, is not an optional cultural accessory but the very condition of social order and moral life, for when God’s guidance is withdrawn, both morality and community disintegrate. ²⁰

Religion and Civilization Building

Religion has not only bound groups together but has also served as a civilizational engine. Nearly every great civilization has drawn its institutions, laws, and cultural ethos from religious frameworks. Ancient Egypt, ²¹ India, ²² and China ²³ intertwined political authority with sacred cosmologies. In Europe, Christianity assumed this role by providing the moral and intellectual foundations of medieval culture. Augustine’s insistence that true religion unites worship, doctrine, and morality, and his portrayal of Christianity as the rational fulfillment of philosophy, offered a framework in which faith could become the guiding principle of public life. This vision did not remain abstract; it inspired the formation of cathedral schools and, later, universities—institutions that carried forward learning, science, and the Christian philosophy of culture under the conviction that divine providence ordered history toward truth and wisdom. ²⁴

Islamic civilization provides an even more striking demonstration of religion as a civilizational catalyst. ²⁵ From the Rashidun Caliphate onward, the Holy Quran and the Sunnah furnished a comprehensive framework that fused politics, law, ethics, and spirituality into a coherent order. ²⁶ Unlike other civilizations, where religion and reason often stood in tension, Islam aligned rational inquiry with revelation, ²⁷ producing a social fabric where justice (adl), ²⁸ consultation (shura), ²⁹ and the pursuit of knowledge (ilm) ³⁰ were simultaneously spiritual and civic duties. This synthesis matured under the Abbasid Caliphate, when institutions like the Bayt Al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom) in Baghdad became epicenters of translation, innovation, and scholarship. ³¹ Muslim thinkers such as Jazari in mechanics, Athir Al-Din Al-Abhari, Muayyad Al-Din Al-Urdi and Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi in the field of logic, mathematics and astronomy, Shams Al-Din Al-Khafri in optics, Kamal Al-Din Al-Farisi in pharmacology, Ibn Al-Nafis in medicine and many others demonstrated that the pursuit of technological and intellectual excellence was not merely compatible with faith but was also recommended by it. ³² Thus, Islam transformed faith into a dynamic civilizational force, where revelation became the wellspring of both spiritual vitality and technological advancement.

Even in the modern period, where secular nationalism attempted to replace religious loyalties, the influence of religion in shaping cultures and legal systems remains evident. Paul Hiebert observes that the ‘deep currents of traditionalism, modernity, and postmodernity’ continue to collide, and religion cannot be dismissed as a marginal force—it continues to shape identities and worldviews in decisive ways. ³³

Religion and Globalization

In the globalized world, religions are not merely surviving—they are global actors themselves. Miroslav Volf argues that religions are not external to globalization but are in fact among its original drivers, historically spreading across continents and shaping trade, ethics, and cultural exchange. Christianity, Buddhism, and especially Islam expanded through transnational missionary movements, trade networks, and political empires, creating early forms of global interconnectedness. ³⁴ Thus, religions must be seen not as passive inheritors of globalization but as its earliest architects and enduring shapers.

The Individual Role of Religion

Religion shapes the individual by providing meaning, moral guidance, and a framework for psychological well-being. It situates personal life within a larger moral and cosmic order, helping believers navigate temporal challenges while aiming for eternal significance. Through practices, teachings, and ethical principles, religion fosters resilience, hope, and contentment. It also offers pathways to ultimate fulfillment—whether liberation, enlightenment, salvation, or success—demonstrating its enduring role in guiding both inner life and outward conduct.

Religion as Meaning and Purpose

The ultimate purpose of human life cannot be reduced to temporary achievements or passing satisfactions, ³⁵ because they end with death and leave existence without lasting significance. Secular ideologies, whether materialist or humanist, may offer temporary or partial answers to life’s meaning, but they often fail to satisfy the deepest yearnings of the human spirit.

Blaise Pascal in his ‘Pensees’ observed that the human heart contains an infinite abyss that can only be filled by God Himself. ³⁶ Centuries earlier, Augustine in his Confessions reflected that the human heart remains restless until it finds rest in God. ³⁷ Taken together, these perspectives affirm that religion supplies the transcendent horizon of meaning that anchors human life, preventing existence from collapsing into absurdity or nihilism, and orienting the human journey toward truth, purpose, and ultimate fulfillment.

In the postmodern condition, where many experience life as fragmented and directionless, the search for meaning has become urgent. David Ray Griffin highlights that theology must re-enter the public domain because questions of ultimate concern cannot be relegated to private sentiment alone. Without religion, human beings are left with policies and values dictated by self-interest and consumerism, which are insufficient to sustain the soul or society. ³⁸ Religion thus restores coherence to individual existence by situating personal life within a larger cosmic and moral order.

The characteristics mentioned above are clearly stated in the purpose of life ordained by Islam. The Holy Quran states:

وَمَا خَلَقْتُ الْجِنَّ وَالْإِنْسَ إِلَّا لِيَعْبُدُونِ 56³⁹

I did not create the jinn and humans but to worship Me.

This verse states that the fundamental purpose of human existence is servitude to Allah. The term ibadah in this context extends beyond ritual observances such as prayer and fasting to denote comprehensive obedience, submission, and orientation of life toward the Divine will. Unlike the rest of creation, which functions in automatic conformity to divine command, human beings are endowed with freedom of choice, and thus their task is to consciously and willingly dedicate themselves to God. To live in service to worldly powers, false authorities, or self-interest is therefore a deviation from the ontological purpose for which humanity was created. Properly understood, this verse situates worship as the all-encompassing telos of human life, integrating both spiritual devotion and ethical conduct into a unified vision of existence directed toward Allah. ⁴⁰ In this way, Islam offers not a partial or temporary answer but a comprehensive framework that fulfills the deepest human longing for meaning. By grounding life’s purpose in conscious devotion to God, it unites the personal and the social, the temporal and the eternal, transforming existence from a transient pursuit of satisfactions into a meaningful journey toward truth, accountability, and everlasting fulfillment.

Religion as Ethical Compass

Religion provides not only inspiration but also an authoritative framework for discerning right from wrong. ⁴¹ Unlike secular ethics, which often shift with cultural trends, religious morality is rooted in transcendent principles. ⁴² For Cicero, the moral law was inseparable from divine order. ⁴³ In Christian thought, Augustine insisted that true justice cannot exist without reference to God. ⁴⁴ In Islamic thought, morality is inseparable from the recognition of God’s transcendence. It is not contingent upon culture, race, or history, but derives its authority from divine revelation. Unlike secular or humanistic ethics, which shift with cultural trends and historical contexts, Islamic morality rests upon the immutable principles of Tawḥid and Taqwa, providing an enduring framework for discerning right from wrong. ⁴⁵ Thus, humans are mukallaf (moral agents) accountable to their Creator, and the Holy Quran describes hidayat (guidance) as that which leads to righteousness. Secular attempts at ethics may succeed in producing temporary consensus, but without accountability to a higher authority, moral relativism prevails which leads to instability. Religion grounds morality in something beyond subjective preference, giving individuals both guidance and accountability.

Religion as Healing and Flourishing

Beyond meaning and morality, religion touches the deepest emotional and psychological dimensions of the human person. Miroslav Volf argues that religion offers visions of ‘the good life’ that cannot be replaced by secular substitutes. He notes that flourishing is not merely material prosperity but living well in relation to God, others, and the world.

Psychological studies also confirm that religious faith contributes positively to mental health, resilience, and hope. ⁴⁷ Practices such as prayer, meditation, and community worship provide coping mechanisms against anxiety, depression, and despair. ⁴⁸⁴⁹ In a globalized world marked by uncertainty, religion offers inner stability and peace. ⁵⁰ Where consumerism produces chronic dissatisfaction ⁵¹ and nihilism breeds despair, religion cultivates gratitude, contentment, and hope.

Religion and Ultimate Salvation

Paul Hiebert reminds us that the crisis of modernity lies in its inability to answer ultimate questions of truth, life, and destiny. ⁵² Postmodern relativism fares no better, dissolving truth into endless perspectives. ⁵³ Religion, however, as stated under ‘Religion as Meaning and Purpose’, affirms that life is not a meaningless accident but a purposeful journey with eternal consequences. To deny this ultimate horizon is to leave the human heart unsatisfied and the human story incomplete.

Furthermore, Human beings instinctively seek not only temporal fulfillment but eternal security. Different religions present different soteriologies: Hinduism envisions moksha (liberation), ⁵⁴ Buddhism points toward nirvana (enlightenment), ⁵⁵ Christianity emphasizes salvation through Christ, ⁵⁶⁵⁷ and Islam proclaims Falah (the ultimate success in this world and the hereafter) in submission to Allah. ⁵⁸

Islam and the Post/Metamodern Challenge

The modern and postmodern eras have produced skepticism, relativism, and secularism. Paul Hiebert observes that Western thought has swung between positivism (arrogant certainty) and postmodern relativism (nihilism), both of which fail to sustain meaning. ⁵⁹ In contrast, Islam embodies critical realism: affirming objective truth while acknowledging human humility before God. ⁶⁰

According to David Ray Griffin, modernity marginalized theology as either unscientific or irrelevant, while postmodernity opened space for a renewed, rational, and experiential understanding of God, ethics, and reality. Postmodern theology recognizes that knowledge is not only sensory or culturally conditioned, allowing for non-sensory insight and moral awareness. ⁶¹ Islam parallels this view by teaching that mankind perceives the world through limited faculties but can apprehend objective truth and guidance from God. Through revelation in the Holy Quran, humans are able to exercise reason, align their actions with transcendent principles, and pursue meaningful life and moral accountability. In this way, Islam provides a coherent framework for understanding reality, ethics, and human purpose that resonates with postmodern insights.

Lastly, in a world fractured by pluralism, Islam offers both exclusivity and openness. Its exclusivity lies in the truth of Tawḥid: that God is One and worthy of worship. ⁶² Its openness lies in recognizing all Prophets , ⁶³ affirming religious freedom ⁶⁴ and engaging in dialogue with other faiths. ⁶⁵ Thus, Islam avoids both the authoritarianism of premodern dogmatism and the nihilism of postmodern relativism.

Thus, religion is not an accidental feature of human culture but a collective and individual necessity. Collectively, it binds societies, builds civilizations, and guides globalization toward justice and peace. Individually, it grants meaning, moral direction, psychological resilience, and hope of salvation. The postmodern and metamodern worlds, despite their skepticism, have not escaped the need for religion, rather, they reveal its indispensability more clearly than ever. While many religions address aspects of these needs, Islam offers the most comprehensive and enduring vision of religion. As ‘Al-Din’, it provides a coherent vision that unites temporal life with eternal purpose, personal freedom with communal welfare, and reason with spiritual insight. Its enduring relevance underscores humanity’s need for transcendent anchors amid changing cultural and intellectual landscapes.

• ¹  Marcus Tullius Cicero (1967), De Natura Deorum Academia (Translated by H. Rackham), Harvard University Press, London, U.K., Pg. 193.
• ²  Saint Augustine (2004), Letters 156–210 (Epistulae) (Translated by Roland Teske, Ed. Boniface Ramsey), New City Press, New York, USA, Part-II, Vol. 3, Pg. 20-22.
• ³  Peter. L. Berger (1999), The Desecularization of the World, Ethics and Public Policy Center, Washington D. C., USA, Pg. 2-3.
• ⁴  Miroslav Volf (2015), Flourishing: Why We Need Religion in a Globalized World, Yale University Press, London, U.K., Pg. 1–3.
• ⁵  Timotheus Vermeulen & Robin van den Akker (2010), Notes on Metamodernism, Journal of Aesthetics & Culture, Routledge, New York, USA, Vol. 2, Pg. 1.
• ⁶  David Ray Griffin (1989), God and Religion in the Postmodern World: Essays in Postmodern Theology, State University of New York Press, Albany, USA, Pg. XIII-XIV.
• ⁷  Paul G. Hiebert (1999), The Missiological Implications of Epistemological Shifts: Affirming Truth in a Modern/Postmodern World, Trinity Press International, Pennsylvania, USA, Pg. XV.
• ⁸  Emile Durkheim (1995), The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (Translated by Karen E. Fields), The Free Press, New York, USA, Pg. 44.
• ⁹  Ibid, Pg. 420-421.
• ¹⁰  Miroslav Volf (2015), Flourishing: Why We Need Religion in a Globalized World, Yale University Press, London, U.K., Pg. 2–3.
• ¹¹  The Bible, Genesis 1: 27
• ¹²  The Bible, Acts 17: 26
• ¹³  The Bible, Galatians 3: 28
• ¹⁴  The Bible, Acts 2: 44-47
• ¹⁵  Holy Quran, Al-Nisa (The Women) 4: 1
• ¹⁶  Holy Quran, Al-Hujurat (The Apartments) 49: 13
• ¹⁸  Muhammad ibn Ismail Al-Bukhari (1999), Sahih Al-Bukhari, Hadith: 6011, Dar Al-Salam lil Nashr wal-Tawzi, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Pg. 1051.
• ¹⁹  Abu Ali Ahmed ibn Muhammad Miskawayh Al-Razi (2000-2002), Tajarib Al-Umam wa T’aqub Al-Himam, Dar Sarush, Tehran, Iran, Vol. 1, Pg. 125.
• ²⁰  Patricia Crone (2005), Medieval Islamic Political Thought, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, Scotland, Pg. 261-266.
• ²¹  R. James Ferguson (2016), The Ancient Egyptian Concept of Maat: Reflections on Social Justice and Natural Order, CEWCES Research Papers, Bond University, Queensland, Australia, Research Paper 15, Pg. 1.
• ²²  Patrick Olivelle & Jr. Donald R. Davis (Ed.). (2018), Hindu Law: A New History of Dharmasastra, Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K., Pg. 21-22.
• ²³  Li Feng (2006), Landscape and Power in Early China: The Crisis and Fall of the Western Zhou, 1045–771 BC, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., Pg. 1-2.
• ²⁴  Saint Augustine (2004), Letters 156–210 (Epistulae) (Translated by Roland Teske, Ed. Boniface Ramsey), New City Press, New York, USA, Part-II, Vol. 3, Pg. 20-22.
• ²⁵  Marshall G. S. Hodgson (1977), The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA, Vol. 1, Pg. 103.
• ²⁶  Patricia Crone and Martin Hinds (2003), God's Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., Pg. 27-28.
• ²⁷  Seyyed Hossein Nasr (2001), Science and Civilization in Islam, ABC International Group, Inc., Illinois, USA, Pg. 23-25.
• ²⁸  Holy Quran, Al-Maidah (The Table Spread) 5: 8
• ²⁹  Holy Quran, Al-Shura (The Consultation) 42: 38
• ³⁰  Holy Quran, Ta-ha 20: 114
• ³¹  Abdul Shafi Muhammad Abdul Latif (1428 A.H), Al-Seerah Al-Nabawiyyah wal Tareekh Al-Islami, Dar Al-Salam, Cairo, Egypt, Pg. 309.
• ³²  George Saliba (2007), Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance, The MIT Press, London, U.K., Pg. 21.
• ³³  Paul G. Hiebert (1999), The Missiological Implications of Epistemological Shifts: Affirming Truth in a Modern/Postmodern World, Trinity Press International, Pennsylvania, USA, Pg. XV.
• ³⁴  Miroslav Volf (2015), Flourishing: Why We Need Religion in a Globalized World, Yale University Press, London, U.K., Pg. 1–3.
• ³⁵  Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Online): https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/life-meaning/: Retrieved: 28-08-25
• ³⁶  Blaise Pascal (1958), Pensees (Introduction by T. S. Eliot), E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 113.
• ³⁷  Saint Augustine (1966), Confessions (Translated by R. S. Pine-Coffin), Penguin Books, Middlesex, U.K., Pg. 21.
• ³⁸  David Ray Griffin (1989), God and Religion in the Postmodern World: Essays in Postmodern Theology, State University of New York Press, Albany, USA, Pp. XIII–XIV.
• ³⁹  Holy Quran, Al-Dhariyaat (The Scattering Winds) 51: 56
• ⁴⁰  Sayyid Abu Al-A’ala Mawdudi (2008), Tafheem Al-Quran, Idara Tarjuman Al-Quran, Lahore, Pakistan, Vol. 5, Pg. 155-156.
• ⁴¹  Holy Quran, Al-Furqan (The Criterion) 25: 1
• ⁴²  Edward Langerak (2022), How Do Theological and Secular Ethics Relate and Compare?, MDPI, Basel, Switzerland, Vol. 13, Issue: 10, Pg. 12.
• ⁴³  Marcus Tullius Cicero (1929), On the Commonwealth (Translated by George Holland Sabine & Stanley Barney Smith), The Bobbs Merrill Company Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 90.
• ⁴⁴  Saint Augustine (2004), Letters 156–210 (Epistulae) (Translated by Roland Teske, Ed. Boniface Ramsey), New City Press, New York, USA, Part-II, Vol. 3, Pg. 21-22.
• ⁴⁵  Ismael Raji Al-Faruqi (1992), Al-Tawhid: Its Implications for Thought and Life, International Institute of Islamic Thought, Virginia, USA, Pg. 71-74.
• ⁴⁷  Hatice Tuba Akbayram & Hamit Sirri Keten (2024), The Relationship between Religion, Spirituality, Psychological Well-Being, Psychological Resilience, Life Satisfaction of Medical Students in the Gaziantep, Turkey, Journal of Religion and Health, Springer, New York, USA, Vol. 63, Pg. 2847.
• ⁴⁸  Ellen Goodwin & Kathryn Kraft (2022), Mental health and Spiritual Well‑being in Humanitarian Crises: The Role of Faith Communities Providing Spiritual and Psychosocial Support during the COVID‑19 Pandemic, Journal of International Humanitarian Action, Springer, New York, USA, Vol. 7, Issue No. 1, Pg. 15.
• ⁴⁹  Fayez Azez Mahamid & Dana Bdier (2021), The Association Between Positive Religious Coping, Perceived Stress, and Depressive Symptoms During the Spread of Coronavirus (COVID‑19) Among a Sample of Adults in Palestine: Across Sectional Study, Journal of Religion and Health, Springer, New York, USA, Vol. 60, Pg. 34.
• ⁵⁰  Holy Quran, Al-Ra’d (The Thunder) 13: 28
• ⁵¹  Luisa Soares & Sara Moniz (2023), Overconsumption and the Effects on Mental Health and Well-Being: A Review, Current Research in Diabetes & Obesity Journal, Juniper Publishers, California, USA, Vol. 17, Issue: 2, Pg. 2.
• ⁵²  Paul G. Hiebert (1999), The Missiological Implications of Epistemological Shifts: Affirming Truth in a Modern/Postmodern World, Trinity Press International, Pennsylvania, USA, Pg. 1–3.
• ⁵³  Encyclopedia Britannica (Online): https://www.britannica.com/topic/postmodernism-philosophy/Postmodernism-and-relativism: Retrieved: 29-08-2025
• ⁵⁴  Bhagavad Gita, Sankhya Yog 2: 50–51
• ⁵⁵  Digha Nikaya (Pali Canon), Mahaparinibbana Sutta: 16–17
• ⁵⁶  The Bible, John 3: 16
• ⁵⁷  The Bible, Romans 10: 9-10
• ⁵⁸  Holy Quran, Al-Maidah (The Table Spread) 5: 9
• ⁵⁹  Paul G. Hiebert (1999), The Missiological Implications of Epistemological Shifts: Affirming Truth in a Modern/Postmodern World, Trinity Press International, Pennsylvania, USA, Pg. 68–69.
• ⁶⁰  Matthew L. N. Wilkinson (2013), Introducing Islamic Critical Realism: A Philosophy for Underlabouring Contemporary Islam, Journal of Critical Realism, Routledge, New York, USA, Vol. 12, Issue: 4, Pg. 440-441.
• ⁶¹  David Ray Griffin (1989), God and Religion in the Postmodern World: Essays in Postmodern Theology, State University of New York Press, Albany, USA, Pg. 1–4.
• ⁶²  Holy Quran, Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2: 163
• ⁶³  Holy Quran, Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2: 285
• ⁶⁴  Holy Quran, Al-Baqarah (The Cow) 2: 256
• ⁶⁵  Holy Quran, Al-Nahl (The Bee) 16: 125