History

The civilization of ancient Rome has been adored and praised by numerous scholars throughout history. This praise however, seems exaggerated since these scholars have either failed to see the obvious shortcomings of the barbaric Roman civilization or have intentionally overlooked them. Hence, they have presented a grand image of the Roman Empire, tucking away the numerous horrors holds within. Materialistically, the Romans were way ahead of their time and their skill in artistry, military and architecture was unmatched, but, morally, intellectually and ethically they were a disgrace to humanity.

To the west of modern-day Greece lies a boot-shaped peninsula which extends 500 miles out into the Mediterranean Sea. Today this nation-state is known as Italy or Italia to those who live there. In the ancient world, a civilization and culture developed there, which was destined to become a powerful, and extensive empire in the history of the world. It was known as the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire ruled for centuries over the entire Mediterranean region. The lands it controlled stretched from the northern coast of Africa to modern-day Germany; from the Caspian Sea in the east to the British Isles in the northern Atlantic Ocean. ¹

Origin

The origin of the city of Rome has always been obscure and controversial, even in the Roman period itself, when several myths and legends purported to explain its origin and development. There appears to have been some form of settlement in the area during the Bronze Age, as early as the late 2nd millennium B.C. Traditionally, the first settlement was on the Palatine Hill, and archeologists have proved that settlement on this hill began to expand during the Iron Age, in the mid-8th century B.C. Soon afterward there was another settlement, possibly of Sabines, on the Quirinal Hill. At this time, Rome was surrounded by various communities, including Etruscans, Sabines, Faliscans and Latins. All these communities had an influence on the early development of Rome, although the majority of Rome’s population probably came from the Latins. These early settlements gradually merged in to one large settlement, becoming recognizably urban by the 6th century B.C. ² By the 5th and 6th century, Rome was part of a larger Mediterranean world. ³

History tells us about the Etruscans, the first civilized people to enter Italy around 1000 B.C. Once they settled in Italy, they created a confederacy, or loose union, of cities between 700 and 500 B.C. During this period of Etruscan influence in central Italy, other Mediterranean people made their way to Italian shores. The Phoenicians lived along the eastern Mediterranean. They began colonizing extensively after 1000 B.C. far to the west. In 814 B.C., according to tradition, the Phoenicians established a trading city in northern Africa. The city was called Carthage. Carthage became one of the most important Phoenician cities in the Mediterranean. Its location put the Phoenicians within 250 miles of the toe of the Italian Peninsula and only 90 miles from the island of Sicily, just off the coast of Italy. By the 700s B.C., the Greeks were busy establishing colonies in southern Italy. They created important city-states in that region which became great trading centers. Also, during the 8th century, the Greeks and the Carthaginians began colonizing Sicily, each at opposite ends of the large, triangular island. These three powers—the Etruscans, the Carthaginians, and the Greeks—controlled much of the trade on the Italian Peninsula by the middle of the 700s. During this period, a region south of Etruria known as Latium was home to approximately 30 villages whose inhabitants spoke the same language—Latin. One of these villages was known as Rome. Latium was organized into a defensive alliance known as the Latin League. At this time, Rome was not an important town even in the Latin League. The origin of Rome is shrouded in myth. ⁴

Mythological Origin

Long before the Romans, a great part of the western seaboard was occupied by the Etruscans. These mysterious people had already developed a sophisticated civilization, with substantial cities, paved roads, sewage systems, and complex religious and funerary rites. The Romans later borrowed heavily from the Etruscans. Other tribes coexisted with the Etruscans—Samnites, Umbrians, Sabines, and Latins. In its earliest phase, the area around the small settlement of Rome was shared between these tribes, and Roman kings were drawn from among the Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans. Tradition states that Romulus created the institution of a Senate to be the king’s advisor. ⁵

Romulus was the great grandson of Silvius. According to the books of history, Silvius Procas left two sons, Numitor, the older, and Amulius. When the kingdom was divided, the former chose the property, and the latter the crown. Numitor had two children, a son and a daughter. Amulius feared that they could aspire to the throne, hence he murdered the son, and made the daughter, Rhea Silvia, a Vestal virgin. He did this to prevent her from marrying any one, for it was forbidden to Vestal virgins. She, however, became pregnant by Mars, and had twin sons, whom she named Romulus and Remus. When Amulius was informed of this, he cast their mother into prison, and ordered the boys to be drowned in the Tiber River. At this time the river had swollen by rains, and had overflowed its banks. The boys were thrown into a shallow place, they escaped drowning, and as the water subsided, they were left on dry land. A she wolf, heard their cries, ran to them and suckled them. Faustulus, a shepherd who was nearby, saw this, took the boys home and reared them. When they grew up and learned who they were, they killed Amulius, and gave the kingdom to their grandfather, Numitor. Then in 753 B.C. they founded a city on Mount Palatínus, which they called Rome, after Romulus. While they were building a wall around this city, Remus was killed in a quarrel with his brother. ⁶

After ruling for 40 years as Rome’s first king, Romulus was believed to have been carried away into the sky, where he became a god. Romans were so proud of their city that they were sure that the gods must have had a hand in its birth. In fact, archaeologists have shown that Rome was founded much earlier, growing from a humble group of small huts on the Palatine, one of the city's seven hills. ⁷

Ancient Roman historians initially argued over the precise year of emergence of Rome. By the end of the republic, however, it was generally accepted that Rome had been founded in 753 B.C. and that the republic had begun in 509 B.C., following the overthrow of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last of Rome’s seven kings. According to tradition, the first six kings had been benevolent rulers, but the last was a cruel tyrant who was overthrown by a popular uprising. ⁸

Period of Monarchy

According to the early sources, Rome was ruled by a series of seven kings, none of whom were native Romans: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullius Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Lucius Tcirquinius Superbus. ⁹ Under the first of these kings were built the fine temple of Jupiter Capitolínus, on the Capitoline Hill, and nearby shrines to Juno and Minerva. This temple to Jupiter was called the Capitolium, and from it we get our word Capitol. It was looked upon as the centre of Roman religion and authority, and at times the Senate was convened in it. ¹⁰

Romulus, first king of Rome, ruled for 37 years (753-716 B.C.). He found the city needed inhabitants, so to increase their number, he opened an asylum, to which many refugees poured in. Next, in order to get these men wives, he held regional games and invited the neighboring people, the Sabines, to attend the sports. When all were engaged in looking on, the Romans suddenly made a rush and seized the Sabine virgins. This bold robbery caused a war, which finally ended in a compromise, and a sharing of the city with the Sabines. Romulus then chose one hundred Senators, whom he called Patres. He also divided the people into thirty wards. ¹¹

Romulus ensured that his city was large and populous by requiring the inhabitants to rear all their male children and also their first born daughters. He forbade the killing of any child under the age of three years unless it was born crippled or with deformities. In such cases he did permit exposure, provided the parents had first shown the child to five neighbors and obtained their agreement. ¹² In the 37th year of his reign he disappeared, and was believed to have been taken up into heaven without any logical reason and then Numa Pompilius (716-673 B.C.), a Sabine from Cures, was chosen. He was a good man, and a great lawgiver. Many sacred rites were instituted by him to civilize his barbarous subjects. He reformed the calendar, and built a temple to the god Janus. Tullus Hostilius (673-641 B.C.) succeeded him. His reign was noted for the fall of Alba Longa. Then came Ancus Marcius (640-616 B.C.), the grandson of Numa succeeded him. He was a good and popular ruler. He conquered the Latins, enlarged the city, and built new walls around it. He was the first to build a prison, and a bridge over the Tiber river. He also founded a city at its mouth, which he called Ostia. ¹³

Period of Roman Republic

When the monarchy came to an end, the city was governed by an oligarchy. ¹⁴ The last king of Rome was an Etruscan, called Tarquin the Proud. He offended Rome’s nobles, so they drove him out. Then, in around 510 B.C., they set up a new form of government, called a Republic. Rome was now governed by annually elected magistrates, the most important being two consuls who were heads of state. The consuls ruled with the advice of the Senate, an assembly of around 300 serving and ex-magistrates. Every adult male citizen had the right to vote for the magistrates. Since a magistrate’s work was unpaid, only the richest could afford to stand for election. ¹⁵

By 500 B.C. Rome dominated all of Latium but by 390 B.C., Gauls invaded and briefly occupied Rome, the first time the city's defenses had ever failed. By 270 B.C. Rome controlled almost all of Italy. As Rome's strength grew, the city clashed with other major powers in the Mediterranean region. Rome fought the North African city of Carthage in the three Punic Wars, finally conquering and destroying the city in 146 B.C. Around the same time, Rome fought and won in Macedonia, western Asia, and Greece. By 129 B.C. Rome had a population of at least half a million people and controlled most of Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia. Years of fighting drained Rome's wealth and resources, and civil unrest led to a series of bloody civil wars during the last decades of the republic. ¹⁶

Notable figures in the civil wars included Gaius Marius, a military leader who was elected consul seven times, and Sulla, an army officer. The later stages of the civil wars encompassed the careers of Pompey, the orator Cicero, and Julius Caesar, who eventually took full power over Rome as its dictator. After his assassination in 44 B.C., the triumvirate of Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian, Caesar’s nephew, ruled. It was not long before Octavian went to war against Antony in northern Africa, and after his victory at Actium (31 B.C.), he was crowned Rome’s first emperor, Augustus. ¹⁷

Roman Empire

At the end of the civil wars in 31 B.C., Octavian (later Augustus) was in complete control of the empire. While Octavian’s position was unassailable, his legal position was vulnerable. In 27 B.C., he handed over the state to the Senate, but it was agreed that he would have a special command for 10 years with a province including Spain, Gaul, Syria and Cilicia, which contained the bulk of the army. The priority for Octavian over the coming decades was the consolidation of existing provinces, which sometimes led to the extension of frontiers or the abandonment of territory. In the east plans for expansion were abandoned and an agreement was made with Parthia. Galatia was made a province in 25 B.C. and Judaea in A.D. 6. Spain was finally pacified, and both Spain and Gaul were reorganized. In the north the frontier was extended to the Danube, and the provinces of Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia and Moesia were established. In the west plans to advance to the Elbe were abandoned, and the Rhine-Danube became the northern frontier. ¹⁸

The Julio-Claudians and the Flavians

For the next several decades, Rome was ruled by two dynasties of emperors: the Julio-Claudians and the Flavians. Tiberius, the second in the Julio-Claudian line after Augustus, was an able administrator. Careful with finances, he produced a large surplus in the treasury and maintained the stability created under Augustus. Tiberius, however, could also be stubborn, cruel, and indifferent to public sentiment. These incapacities ruined his reputation among the Roman people. He also was plagued by the issue of succession. Tiberius's chosen heir, his nephew Germanicus, died mysteriously in A.D. 19. Lucius Sejanus, the head of the Praetorian Guard (the emperor's personal bodyguards), saw this as a chance to control the throne after Tiberius was gone. Sejanus became guardian of Tiberius's grandnephew Caligula and ruthlessly eliminated anyone who stood between Caligula and the throne. Weary of court intrigues and political rivalries, Tiberius retired to the island of Capri in A.D. 26, leaving Sejanus as his representative in Rome. Sejanus's influence in Rome steadily increased until Tiberius finally realized just how devious the man had been. In A.D. 31 Tiberius ordered the execution of Sejanus and killed many senators who had collaborated with him. A reign of violence and terror marked the last years of Tiberius's reign, and the Roman people rejoiced when he died in A.D. 37. Tiberius's successor, Caligula, raised the expectations of Romans by arranging lavish public games and entertainments. However, his dark side, and possible insanity, soon surfaced in terrible cruelty. Caligula delighted in humiliating and intimidating senators and other powerful Romans, and he insisted on being worshiped as a god. He was assassinated in A.D. 41. Upon Caligula's death, the Praetorian Guard proclaimed his uncle, Claudius emperor. Crippled by birth, Claudius was considered a fool at the time. Modern historians, however, regard him as a capable ruler who expanded the bureaucracy, extended citizenship to some people in the provinces, and conquered much of Britain. Yet he was manipulated by his wives, and his second wife, Agrippina, was suspected of plotting his death by poisoning in A.D. 54 and arranging the succession of Nero, her son by a previous marriage. Nero became emperor at age 17, so Rome was ruled by his advisers, including the philosopher Seneca, for several years. Nero assumed full control of the empire in A.D. 62, but he was more interested in poetry, plays, dancing, and chariot racing than in ruling. ¹⁹

Tiberius largely followed Augustus’ advice not to extend the empire, except that Cappadocia was made a province. The two Mauretanias, Britain, Lycia and Thrace were added during Claudius’ reign. Nero’s reign saw disorder and rebellion in the provinces, and at the end of his reign the civil wars of 69 caused disruption throughout the empire. ²⁰

The Julio-Claudian dynasty that Augustus founded ended with the suicide of the mad emperor Nero in 68 C.E. From this point on, Rome’s history was one of succeeding dynasties conquering ever more territory, but also realizing a limit to expansion. The empire’s success attracted more and more barbarian tribes to gather enviously on its borders. Later emperors proved incompetent in the task of keeping the barbarians at bay, and the destruction by Goths of two-thirds of the Roman legions at Hadrianople in 378 C.E. paved the way for the eventual collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 A.D. ²¹

Geography

The history of Rome is that of a city which originally had only a few miles of territory and gradually expanded its dominion at first, over Italy and then, over the civilized world. ²² Rome was built on seven low hills: the Aventine, Caelian, Capitoline, Esquiline, Palatine, Quirinal and Viminal hills. The city was built at the lowest fording point of the Tiber River, which would often flood low lying areas. ²³ Rome was by no means positioned at the center of the region, but rather it was a frontier-town, an outpost facing foreign land. It was also to be the point at which the river could be bridged: a city that offered anyone arriving from the sea their first chance to cross the river. ²⁴

The mountains divided the Roman Empire into three main geographical divisions, the fruitful Po Valley, and the east and west shores. On the Adriatic side, the land was generally sterile, except in Apulia. The mountains were steeper and nearer to the coast, leaving little room for fertile plains. The west coast, on the other hand had broad fertile plains averaging eighty miles between mountains and sea. A fourth lesser division was the foot of the peninsula formed by the Sila range. ²⁵

The site of the city was produced by the interaction between a very ancient and originally maritime sedimentary substratum and the deposits, between 600,000 and 300,000 years ago, of two neighboring volcanic systems, the Sabatini Mountains to the north-east and the Alban Mountains to the south-east. Another determining factor was a river, the valley of which was the widest in the whole peninsula and which, with its 400 km-long course and its forty or so tributaries, came to form a natural axis of communications. The famous Roman hills were grouped around the river at a point where, checked by the mass of volcanic deposits, it bent sharply towards the south-west. In the center of its meandering course, an island, formed as early as the Pleistocene, made it easier to cross the water. Two lines of ridges came to a halt at the left bank; one ran from the Quirinal to the Capitol, the other from the Esquiline to the Palatine, while the Caelian and the Aventine stood further back. Between these lay a wide depression that used to be crisscrossed by watercourses and was liable to form marshland, as also happened around the Velabrum River. Further to the north, the alluvial plain within the river’s wide western curve, which was frequently flooded, presented a huge open space. ²⁶

At its peak, the Roman Empire spanned from Scotland to Iraq, from Romania to Morocco. But it is the geography of Italy that dictated Roman culture and civilization. In some respects, Italy shared many geographical similarities with Greece. As a peninsula, it had a great deal of coastline relative to its total area. Unlike the Greeks, however, the Romans never became happy seafarers. ²⁷

Rome was located in the Italian region of Latium, ²⁸ approximately 16 miles from the sea. The two outstanding features of the Roman environment were the Tiber River and the hills. The Tiber flowed down from the Apennines in the northeast and made a cursive bend as it reached the Tiber Valley. Near the Capitoline Hill there was the important island, Insula Tiberina. Over the years additional territory was added until finally, in the time of King Servius Tullius (578-535 B.C.), Rome comprised of the Seven Hills which are mentioned above. Upon these hills were gardens, baths, the Castra Praetoria and, at the foot of the Quirinal, the Subura. Between the Esquiline and Palantine was a valley, the Velia. To the west was another valley, in which the Fora of the Caesar was built. Toward the east, past the end of the Via Sacra, was an open area, surrounded by the Esquiline and Caelian hills.

Beneath the Palatine were two areas of further interest. The Circus Maximus was in a depression between the Palatine and the Aventine. The Aventine Hill was an excellent place to see the separation of classes, for the poor lived at the base of the hill, and the wealthy had villas at the top, with a view of the city. Across the Tiber were the Vatican and Janiculus hills. The Vatican had its own Christian history, while the Janiculus played a minor role in Roman events with its early fortress. Rome relied upon the mighty river Tiber for defense from the Etruscans but also for the divine patronage of the god Tiber, called Volturnus. At first all bridges across it were made of wood to allow the Romans to cut them down at the time of attack. As the city grew in power, the bridges were built of stone. Numerous emperors sought to improve transportation out of the city with additional bridges. Most likely the oldest bridge was the wooden structure of the Pons (bridge) Sublicius, spanning the Tiber just below Insula Tiberina. Interestingly the Pons Sublicius retained its wooden material even at a later time, when stone was the principal medium of construction. This was probably for religious reasons. Insula Tiberina was important to Rome, and thus two bridges connected it to the two banks-the Pons Fabricius on the east and the Pons Cestius on the west. The Pons Aemilius which connected the island to the Pons Sublicius was the first such bridge of stone. It was built around the middle of the 2nd century B.C., marking a change in Roman engineering. Only one other span was notable from the days of the Republic, which was the Pans Milvius, or the Milvian Bridge, several miles to the north of Rome along the Via Flaminia. ²⁹

Climate

The northern and western parts of the empire were under the control of the Atlantic climate. At the ecological center of the empire was the Mediterranean. The delicate, moody features of the Mediterranean climate— arid summers and wet winters against a relatively temperate backdrop— make it a distinct type of climate. The dynamics of a giant, inland sea, combined with the knuckled texture of its inland terrains, pack extreme diversity into miniature scale. Along the empire’s southern and eastern edges, the high pressure of the subtropical atmosphere won out, turning the land into pre-desert and then true desert. And Egypt, the breadbasket of the empire, plugged the Romans into wholly other climate regimes: the life - bringing Nile floods originated in Ethiopian highlands watered by the monsoons. ³⁰

Rome’s climate was notoriously unhealthy during the late summer and early autumn. At this time of year pathogens – including typhoid, tuberculosis and falciparian malaria – caused a seasonal peak in morbidity and mortality. Seasonal fluctuations in the Roman population were so pervasive that they gained recognition on an institutional level. According to Suetonius, Augustus established official recesses for both the senate and the courts: the former occurred in September and October, the latter in November and December. The recess of the senate clearly took place at the height of both the agricultural and malarial seasons. The recess of the courts was delayed until later, perhaps because Augustus wished to balance the desire to offer a recess against the need to ensure that legal business was actually wrapped up with minimal interruption before new juries were empanelled at the beginning of the year. But in spite of this delay in the official period of recess for the courts, Pliny the Younger indicates that in practice legal business fell off earlier in the year: July, he claims, was a relatively quiet month in the courts. Moreover, by the time of Marcus Aurelius, if not earlier, litigants could not compel adversaries to appear in court during the harvest or vintage, both of which occurred well before the official judicial recess; this stipulation gave institutional recognition to what was undoubtedly a long-established preference among landowners to be present on their estates at critical times in the agricultural year. ³¹

Soil

The condition of the subsoil of the ancient city was composed of alluvial deposits or of rubbish, and was impregnated with the organic detritus of many centuries, either directly, or oozing through the walls of badly constructed drains. The air, contained in the interstices of a soil in such a state was anything but pure, and its impurity was constantly intensified in those several portions of the city where the sewers remained in that bad condition. As to the waters from wells and from the urban springs of those districts, they were all considered as doubtful, for they were all exposed to the contamination of poisonous infiltrations from the subsoil, and sometimes even from the drains. Such a condition of things was serious and may have been most dangerous during the occurrence of epidemics of typhoid fever or of cholera. ³²

Major Races

The early inhabitants of Italy were divided into three races; the Iapygian, Etruscan, and Italian. The Iapygians were the first to settle in Italy. They probably came from the north, and were pushed south by later immigrations, until they were crowded into the southeastern corner of the peninsula (Calabria). Here they were mostly absorbed by the Greeks, who settled in the eighth and seventh centuries all along the southern and southwestern coast, and who were more highly civilized. Besides the Iapygians, and distinct from the Etruscans and Italians, were the Venetians and the Ligurians, the former of whom settled in Venetia, the latter in Liguria. The Etruscans at the time when Roman history began were a powerful and warlike race, superior to the Italians in civilization and the arts of life. They came from the north, and at first settled in the plain of Po; but being afterwards dislodged by the invading Gauls, they moved farther south into Etruria. Here they formed a confederation of twelve cities between the Arno and the Tiber. Of these cities the most noted were Volsinii; the head of the confederacy, Veii, Volaterrae, Caere, and Clusium. These people also formed scattering settlements in other parts of Italy, but gained no firm foothold. At one time, in the 6th century, they were very powerful in Rome. Corsica, too, was at this time under their control. The power of these people was gradually lessened by the Romans, and after the fall of Veii, in 396 B.C, became practically extinct. The Italians were of the same origin as the Hellenes, and belonged to the Aryan race, a group of people that lived in earliest times possibly in Scandinavia. While the Hellenes were settling in Greece, the Italians entered Italy. At this time the Italians had made considerable progress in civilization. They understood, in a measure, the art of agriculture, the building of houses, the use of wagons and of boats, of fire in preparing food, and of salt in seasoning it. They could make various weapons and ornaments out of copper and silver; husband and wife were recognized, and the people were divided into clans (tribes). That portion of the Italians known as the Latins settled in a plain which is bounded on the east and south by mountains, on the west by the Tyrrhenian Sea, and on the north by the high lands of Etruria. ³³

Language

Through much of Rome’s early history, numerous languages were spoken in Italy, some of which were Indo-European, but little is known of these other than Latin. Etruscan was a non-Indo-European language, known from inscriptions, mainly short epitaphs and dedications. Etruscan literature is known to have existed, and only a few words of Etruscan have been deciphered. The language had little influence on Latin, although it was spoken in early Rome, and Etruscan practices (particularly religious) were influential. Latin was the main language of the Indo-European Italic family of languages and was originally spoken by most of the people of Rome and the territory of Latium. It is known through inscriptions from the 6th century B.C. and through literature from the 3rd century B.C. With the expansion of the empire, Latin became widespread, particularly with the foundation of colonies, which created urban centers of Latin-speaking people. It eventually became the language of government of most of Western Europe. Although there was no coercion to adopt Latin as a language, wealthy provincials especially were encouraged to adopt it as part of the process of Romanization and in some areas it did replace the native language. Elsewhere, though, native languages, such as Celtic (Gaulish), Egyptian demotic, Punic and Syriac, continued to be used as well throughout the empire. In Greek-speaking areas Latin had little influence, and Greek remained the predominant language, although in the late 3rd century Diocletian encouraged the use of Latin in eastern provinces. Many books of the day were written in Greek, and educated Romans usually learned Greek from childhood. Bilingual speakers were more common than those who spoke a single language, though they may not have been equally fluent in, for example, Latin and Greek. ³⁴

Latin was wrongly called the first language of human history by the historians like Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins, ³⁵ but the claim is acceptable that Latin was the only spoken language in the city of Rome and its surroundings. During the first centuries it was probably just a spoken language, but later on it was also written down. There is an inscription on a stone in the Forum Romanum which has been dated to the 6th century B.C. It has been damaged and is not completely decipherable, but the letters are Latin and it is clear that the language is Latin. Written Latin therefore was at least two and a half thousand years old. ³⁶

In the ancient world, as in the modern, mono-lingualism was a minority trait. Hence, The idea that mono-lingualism was common is merely a myth. ³⁷ Hence Latin was just one of several Indo-European languages in Italy at this time. As a group, these languages are sometimes referred to as Italic languages. The other Italic languages include Faliscan, which is most closely related to Latin, as well as Oscan, Umbrian, and Venetic. As Rome came to dominate Italy, Latin began to spread, and by the 1st century A. D., the other Italic languages were no longer written. Soon after that, they disappeared altogether, having been replaced by Latin. Indeed, the spread of the Latin language—like the earlier spread of Greek—was the primary means by which Roman culture spread throughout the Mediterranean world. The areas where Latin was spoken expanded with Rome's rising political fortunes and widening imperial borders, at least in the western part of the empire. ³⁸

Early Latin or archaic Latin describes the language up to 100 B.C., classical or golden age Latin from 100 B.C. to about 14 A.D., and silver Latin up to 150 A.D. The everyday speech of educated people occurred in letters such as those of Cicero. Their speech was less formal and is known mainly from inscriptions, especially graffiti. Even with the barbarian invasions of the 5th century, Latin continued to be the main medium of written communication in the west, but Greek remained dominant in the east. The last eastern emperor to use Latin as the language of government was Justinian in the 6th century. ³⁹

Latin was the official language of the Roman Empire and all the court proceedings were carried out in Latin. It was also the language of the governor, the petty official, and the tax-gatherer. It was used in laws and proclamations, and no native could aspire to a post in the civil service unless he had mastered it. It was regarded sometimes as a

of the much-coveted Roman citizenship. The Emperor Claudius, for instance, cancelled the Roman citizenship of a Greek, because he had addressed a letter to him in Latin which he could not understand. The tradition that Latin was the official language of the world was taken up by the Christian church as well. When Constantine presided over the Council at Nicea in the East, he still addressed the assembly in Latin.

The Latin of the Roman official and the Latin of the church, were the influences which made the language spoken throughout the Empire essentially uniform in its character. Had the Latin which the colonist, the merchant, and the soldier carried through Italy and into the provinces been allowed to develop in different localities without any external unifying influence, probably new dialects would have been born all over the world, or, to put it in another way, probably different Roman languages would have come into existence several centuries before they actually appeared. ⁴⁰

Like Greek, the Latin language also evolved into several dialects; Colloquial Latin, Vulgar Latin, and Classical Latin. Colloquial Latin was the everyday spoken language of educated people. It was also used in writing popular literature and personal letters. Vulgar Latin was the spoken language of uneducated Italians who lived in the provinces. It was rarely written except as dialogue in plays, although some examples survive in inscriptions and graffiti. Classical Latin was a highly cultivated written form of Latin, based on Greek literary models. It evolved over many years and was refined by the Roman statesman and writer Cicero. Classical Latin was very artificial and was only written, never spoken. ⁴¹

The Romans introduced writing to northern Europe for the first time, and the Latin alphabet is still used there. There were only 22 letters in the alphabet (I and J were not distinguished, neither were U and V; W and Y did not exist). Millions of texts were written, from great stone inscriptions to private letters scrawled on wax tablets, and from elegant poems and histories carefully inked on papyrus scrolls to trade accounts scratched on broken pots. The iota of texts which have survived are very precious because they contain information that ruined buildings and broken pots do not; writing is the only medium through which the Romans can still speak about themselves and their world, about politics and their beliefs. But despite the emphasis on writing, most ordinary people were illiterate, due to lack of education, and because, in a world without printing, books had to be copied by hand, and so they were rare and expensive. Romans’ normal handwriting was very different from the familiar capitals seen on inscriptions. This is a fragment of a Latin letter, written in ink on a wooden tablet, preserved in waterlogged ground at the fort of Vindolanda near Hadrian’s Wall. Addressed to a decurion (a corporal) called Lucius, it is about a welcome gift of oysters from a friend of the writer. Fine soot was mixed with water and other ingredients to make ink. This was used for writing on papyrus, wood, and parchment. ⁴²

Decline of the Empire

After the death of Emperor Marcus Aurelius in 180 A.D., his son, Commodus, followed as ruler. He was completely different from his father. Commodus was an unskilled leader and a cruel dictator. He enjoyed the blood sports of the day so much that he participated in them as a gladiator. His 12-year rule came to an end when he was strangled by his own athletic trainer as a part of a conspiracy. Civil war broke out within Rome following the death of Commodus. Various army officers fought to bring their own candidate to the throne. After much murder and mayhem, Septimius Severus (A.D. 193–211) was made the emperor of Rome. ⁴³ Severus generally consolidated frontiers and improved administration of the provinces, dividing one of them in two. The empire was again relatively stable and peaceful during the reign of succeeding emperors until the death of Severus Alexander in 235 A.D., after which followed 50 years of military anarchy, with a rapid succession of emperors holding office for an average of less than three years each. The security of the empire was neglected and several frontiers were breached. Syria was overrun and Asia Minor was invaded, while in the west Postumus established the Gallic Empire (260–274 A.D.), including Spain and Britain. Franks threatened the Lower Rhine, and the Alamanni crossed the Rhine and ravaged northern Italy. Saxon pirates raided the English Channel coasts while Goths raided the Balkans and Aegean. ⁴⁴

By the 3rd century A.D., the title of princeps—first among equals—was dead, and the emperor had become known as dominus, or lord. With this change, the emperor of the Roman Empire was an absolute ruler. But the real holder of the power in Rome was the military and its generals. Not only did the generals frequently become emperors, but other high offices within the Empire—governors, administrators, tax officials—were also filled by army officers. Emperor Severus recognized his dependency, even on his deathbed, where he is reported to have said to his son: “Make the soldiers rich and don’t trouble about the rest.” The dynasty established by Septimius Severus continued through 235 A.D. For the next half century, Rome was ruled by a long series of emperors who were army leaders. These were dark years for the Empire. Among the next 26 emperors— often called the barracks emperors since most came from the ranks of the military—only one died of natural causes. Many only served for a few years or even months before they were killed by a usurper— another officer wanting his time on the throne. ⁴⁵ Rome nearly collapsed during this period. The Persians attacked from the east, barbarians invaded along the northern frontiers, and several eastern provinces broke away from the empire. Problems with Coinage weakened the economy, and plague swept through parts of the empire, killing thousands. ⁴⁶

Claudius Gothicus and Aurelian managed to restore order. Relatively little of the empire was completely lost, mainly Dacia and the Agri Decumates. However, the rapid succession of short-lived emperors continued until Diocletian gained power in 284 A.D. In order to stabilize the succession, Diocletian divided the empire and the imperial power. He became joint Augustus with Maximian and established two junior Caesars (Galerius and Constantius Chlorus), who were destined to succeed as joint Augusti. The empire was, in effect, split into west and east, with Maximian and Constantius Chlorus ruling the west, and Diocletian and Galerius the east and was divided into smaller units, virtually doubling the number of provinces. These smaller provinces were grouped into 12 dioceses for administrative purposes.

By the beginning of the 5th century the empire had begun to collapse. In 407 A.D. the Rhine frontier was overrun by various tribes; in 409 A.D. Vandals, Suebi and Alans crossed the Pyrenees into Spain; and in 410 A.D. Britain was abandoned. Also, in 410 A.D. the Visigoths under Alaric invaded Greece and Italy, sacking Rome, but retreated northward when Alaric died. In 412 A.D. Visigoths took over part of southwestern Gaul but were forced into Spain and eventually agreed to settle in Aquitaine. In 429 A.D. Vandals and Alans crossed the Straits of Gibraltar into Africa. Subsequently much of Africa fell to the Vandals, and by 439 A.D. they were as far east as Carthage. By 455 A.D., when Vandals sacked Rome and took over Sicily, the Visigoths had annexed most of Spain. By 476 little of the western empire remained. ⁴⁷

After the division of the empire into two pieces, the western empire fell which started the gradual process of the destruction of the empire. The empire was destroyed because the lust of power and wealth for the Roman rulers had made them ruthless and savage. This led to the drain of the resources of the empire which subsequently led to increased taxation of the already poverty-stricken peasants. Another reason quoted by the historians was that the religious changes also contributed to the fall. However, it was the lapses in civil administration, weak economy, lack of control over the army and cruel policies of the emperors which led to the decline of the Roman civilization.

 

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• ¹ Tim McNeese (1999), The Romans, Milliken Publishing Company, Ohio, USA, Pg. 1.
• ² Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins (2004), Handbook to life in Ancient Rome, Facts on File Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 110.
• ³ Mathew Dillon & Lynda Garland (2005), Ancient Rome: From the Early Republic to the Assassination of Julius Caesar, Routledge, London, U.K., Pg. 1.
• ⁴ Tim McNeese (1999), The Romans, Milliken Publishing Company, Ohio, USA, Pg. 2.
• ⁵ Norman Bancroft Hunt (2009), Living in Ancient Rome, Thalamus Publishing, New York, USA, Pg. 10.
• ⁶ Robert Franklin Pennell (1890), Ancient Rome: From the Earliest Times Down to 476 A.D., Allyn and Bacon, Boston, USA, Pg. 206.
• ⁷ Peter Chrisp (2006), Explore Ancient Rome, Dorling Kindersley Limited, London, U.K., Pg. 10.
• ⁸ Encyclopedia Britannica (Online Version): https://www.britannica.com/place/Roman-Republic: Retrieved: 09-01-2019
• ⁹ Carroll Moulton (1998), Ancient Greece and Rome, Simon & Schuster Macmillan, New York, USA, Vol. 4, Pg. 4.
• ¹⁰ Robert Franklin Pennell (1890), Ancient Rome: From the Earliest Times Down to 476 A.D., Allyn and Bacon, Boston, USA, Pg. 19.
• ¹¹ Ibid, 207.
• ¹² J. C. McKeown (2010), A Cabinet of Roman Curiosities, Oxford University Press Inc., Oxford, U.K., Pg. 1.
• ¹³ Robert Franklin Pennell (1890), Ancient Rome, From the Earliest Times Down to 476 A.D., Allyn and Bacon, Boston, USA, Pg. 207.
• ¹⁴ Paul Erdkamp (2013), The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Rome, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., Pg. 21.
• ¹⁵ Peter Chrisp (2006), E. Explore Ancient Rome, Dorling Kindersley Limited, London, U.K., Pg. 12.
• ¹⁶ Carroll Moulton (1998), Ancient Greece and Rome, Simon & Schuster Macmillan, New York, USA, Vol. 4, Pg. 2.
• ¹⁷ Encyclopedia Britannica (Online Version) : https://www.britannica.com/place/Roman-Republic : Retrieved: 07-01-2019
• ¹⁸ Lesley Adkins & Roy A. Adkins (2004), Handbook to life in Ancient Rome, Facts on File Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 113-114.
• ¹⁹ Carroll Moulton (1998), Ancient Greece and Rome, Simon & Schuster Macmillan, New York, USA, Vol. 4, Pg. 15-16.
• ²⁰ Lesley Adkins & Roy A. Adkins (2004), Handbook to life in Ancient Rome, Facts on File Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 113-114.
• ²¹ Norman Bancroft Hunt (2009), Living in Ancient Rome, Thalamus Publishing, New York, USA, Pg. 12.
• ²² William Smith (1913), A Smaller History of Rome: From the Earliest Times to the Death of Trajan, John Murray, London, U.K., Pg. 8.
• ²³ Lesley Adkins & Roy A. Adkins (2004), Handbook to life in Ancient Rome, Facts on File Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 110.
• ²⁴ Paul Erdkamp (2013), The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Rome, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., Pg. 8.
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• ²⁶ Paul Erdkamp (2013), The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Rome, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., Pg. 8-10.
• ²⁷ Norman Bancroft Hunt (2009), Living in Ancient Rome, Thalamus Publishing, New York, USA, Pg. 8.
• ²⁸ This plain, called Latium (flat country), contained about 700 square miles (one half the size of Rhode Island), with a coast of only fifty miles, and no good harbors. It is watered by two rivers, the Tiber, and its tributary, the Anio. Hills rose here and there; as Soracte in the northeast, the promontory of Circeium in the southwest, Janiculum near Rome, and the Alban range farther south. The low lands (modern Campagna) were malarious and unhealthy. [Robert Franklin Pennell (1890), Ancient Rome, From the Earliest Times Down to 476 A. D, Allyn and Bacon, Boston, USA, Pg. 12
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• ³¹ Paul Erdkamp (2013), The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Rome, Cambridge University Press, U.K., Pg. 342-343.
• ³² Tommasi Crudeli (1892), The Climate of Rome and the Roman Malaria (Translated by Charles Crammond Dick), J. & A. Churchill, London, U.K., Pg. 7-8.
• ³³ Robert Franklin Pennell (1890), Ancient Rome, From the Earliest Times Down to 476 A.D., Allyn and Bacon, Boston, USA, Pg. 11-12.
• ³⁴ Lesley Adkins & Roy A. Adkins (2004), Handbook to life in Ancient Rome, Facts on File Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 222.
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• ³⁸ Carroll Moulton (1998), Ancient Greece and Rome, Simon & Schuster Macmillan, New York, USA, Vol. 2, Pg. 188.
• ³⁹ Lesley Adkins & Roy A. Adkins (2004), Handbook to life in Ancient Rome, Facts on File Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 222.
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• ⁴¹ Carroll Moulton (1998), Ancient Greece and Rome, Simon & Schuster Macmillan, New York, USA, Vol. 2, Pg. 189.
• ⁴² Simon James (1990), Eye witness Ancient Rome, DK Publishing, New York, USA, Pg. 40.
• ⁴³ Tim McNeese (1999), The Romans, Milliken Publishing Company, Ohio, USA, Pg. 26.
• ⁴⁴ Lesley Adkins & Roy A. Adkins (2004), Handbook to life in Ancient Rome, Facts on File Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 116.
• ⁴⁵ Tim McNeese (1999), The Romans, Milliken Publishing Company, Ohio, USA, Pg. 26.
• ⁴⁶ Carroll Moulton (1998), Ancient Greece and Rome, Simon & Schuster Macmillan, New York, USA, Vol. 4, Pg. 17-18.
• ⁴⁷ Lesley Adkins & Roy A. Adkins (2004), Handbook to life in Ancient Rome, Facts on File Inc., New York, USA, Pg. 116-118.